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Park Dae-sung, a Painter of the Korean Spirit

 

Lee Eun-ho, Professor at Hongik University

 

I. Introduction

 

Park Dae-sung (1945–present; penname Sosan) is a Korean artist whose ink wash paintings have harmoniously integrated tradition with modernity, domestic motifs with foreign scenery. As contemporary art has experienced an intensifying tendency toward both multicultural diversity and localized indigeneity, Park has handled these demands effortlessly. In this regard, the unique artistic world established by Park Dae-sung merits attention because as an artistic space that manifests both global characteristics and unique Korean idiosyncrasies, viewers can now contemplate the many pluralities available via world art history and specific to this Korean artist’s métier. 

 

Park has a dedicated practice in his ink wash painting that for decades has defined his productive career. Although painting and calligraphy were traditionally considered to be complementary mediums, with ink and oil paint applied, combined and amalgamated together, calligraphy has almost disappeared entirely from tKorean painting today. Park is arguably the sole practitioner left blending the two mediums in his work. For reasons of artistic self-preservation, Sosan’s trajectory as an artist can be divided into the periods before and after his integration of calligraphy into painting. His artwork reached a new level of creative ingenuity in terms of both content and quality after calligraphy became an integral part of his mix-media methodology.

 

First entering the field of traditional landscape painting in the late 1960s, it was during the 1980s and 1990s that Park devoted himself to realistic landscape painting, physically observing his subject matter and presenting it in a verisimilar manner. The brush skills and artistic inspiration gained from his years of travelling and sketching during this period were combined with training in calligraphy in the subsequent period, taking him into the realm of xieyi (寫意), meaning "describing the ideas of the artist" or "describing the spirit of the subject." Park artistic turn in the early 2000s toward xieyi landscape painting came to express his own ideas through his subject matter that is entirely credited to his adoption and practice of calligraphy. 

 

Park embarked on an earnest effort to train in calligraphy from around the start of the 2000s when he moved to the southeastern Korean city of Gyeongju, the one-time capital of the Silla Kingdom. This was also the period in which he concentrated his artistic energy into investigating not simply the form or appearance of a given subject matter, but also interrogated its spirit and vitality. He carried out this investigation into the heart of a chosen subject by adopting Silla historic sites and traditional craftworks as his various subjects. These cultural and almost anthropological efforts enriched the symbolism and tropes found in his artwork, leading to the manifestation of a free mixture of realistic and imaginary scenes, as well as stylistic decisions to use both painting and calligraphy. It can be said that Park independently learned the principle first proposed by the Chinese philosopher Wang Bi that "attaining the ideas is a matter of forgetting the images" (得意忘象論). 

 

As artistic transformation began during Park’s temporary sojourns and time spent in Gyeongju, this new current in his art became more prominent after he permanently moved to the ancient city in 2001. His life prior to his residence in Gyeongju can be described as a period of real-view sketching and artistic exploration, while his Gyeongju period is characterized by mastering the fluid integration of painting and calligraphy. Since the start of the 2000s, Park has produced massive quantities of works, noted for their lofty artistic qualities and naturalism. He seems to have depicted anything that manifest itself in his conscious and subconscious mind, creating a great number of paintings, works that vary widely in size, subject, and technique, thus manifesting a range of forms within his distinctive painting style. 

 

The sheer power of execution and the untiring perseverance that Park Dae-sung has personified throughout his career are uncommon qualities in today’s era of rapid techno-cultural change and the convergence of societies and industrial and creative sectors worldwide. At a time when everything is in flux and concrete values are difficult to grasp, Park offers a beacon for novice artists through his life and artwork. One of the fundamental factors to be considered in interpreting the works of an artist must be the social and individual conditions that he/she has been through. Along with the natural disposition with which an artist is born, their social and familial environments wield a huge influence over the thematic content and technical proficiency to produce artwork. Park established his vision through self-study. He has persistently pursued ink wash painting throughout his entire life, receiving no formal art education but simply learning from nature and the great masters of the past. Bypassing the conventional process and acknowledgement for becoming a successful and market-friendly artist, Park established a contemporary form of classicism in his own right; however detached and unrecognized he might be in relation to academic and institutional precedents and accolades bestowed on canonical artists and assessed and determined by art historians and theorists, Park’s creative contribution to the cultural sphere -- like his predecessors and contemporaries -- still marks significant and tangible value to the public.  The remainder of this article is based on recent interviews with Park Dae-sung and position him as a self-taught outlier in the history of Korean art. 

 

II. Artistic Trajectory of Park Dae-sung

 

(1) First Phase (1945–1979): Art Training 

 

Park Dae-sung was born in 1945 as the seventh child in a family that resided in Cheongdo-gun County, Gyeongsangbuk-do Province. His father, a Korean physician, was a member of the local gentry and his oldest brother was an intellectual who had studied in Japan. It was this eldest  brother who entered Park’s name as Dae-sung in the family registry. Only two years after his birth, he lost his mother to illness in 1947. One year later, in 1948, his father was killed at the hands of local pro-Communist forces, and the young Dae-sung lost his left arm in the attack. With both parents absent, Park was raised under the care of his siblings. 

 

Art Teachers 

 

From an impressionable age, art materials were always present in his home: paper, brushes, and inks became Park's closest inanimate friends after he lost both his parents and was maimed himself. He spent most of his childhood alone copying graphic images that were mounted on a folding screen in his room. His schoolmates teased him for being differently abled, and he found no academic pleasure in school life. After graduating from middle school, he received private tutoring in Korean painting for five years from the painter, Seo Jeong-muk. Soon after starting his career as a professional artist in his early twenties while living in Daegu (a large regional city close to Cheongdo), a senior member of his family brought Park Dae-sung into contact with the sculptor Kim Jong-yeong, then the president of the Art College of Seoul National University. From Kim, Park became acquainted with  the painters Park No-su and Lee Yeong-chan, two of the most influential people in his life as a young artist. He formed a long-lasting friendship with the two painters, from whom he sought both practical and philosophical advice for his own burgeoning painterly practice. Another important influence over Sosan's artistic career is the art critic Seok Do-ryun. Park relates this mentorship, stating:, "During the 1970s, a time defined by my participation in the art contests for the National Art Exhibition, Lee Yeong-chan and Park No-su respectively helped develop my painting skills and offered future directions for my work. However, Seok Do-ryun, whom I met in the early 1980s after the end of my National Art Exhibition period, has influenced my entire career as an artist. Every bit of advice from him, derived from his profound understanding of the arts of calligraphy and seal carving and of both Eastern and Western traditions, offered timeless inspiration. His guidance such as 'Never be complacent and never stay still' has made me what I am today. We might not meet another Seok Do-ryun in our time."[1]

 

National Art Exhibition and Residency in Taiwan 

 

From 1969 to 1978, Park Dae-sung was selected eight times to participate in the National Art Exhibition for his paintings done in the traditional style of landscape painting. After earning a positive reputation in Korea through a series of solo exhibitions and successive selections to the National Art Exhibition, he gained an opportunity to visit Taiwan. Park stayed in Taiwan from 1974 to 1975, a one-year period where he drew exotic scenes of this country characterized by a temperate and humid year-round climate which contrasted Korea’s four seasons and more temperate environs. The paintings he executed during this residency abroad were displayed at a solo exhibition held in the Kongque Art Gallery (孔雀畫廊) in Taipei. He also enjoyed an opportunity granted by the National Palace Museum of Taiwan to personally study two painting masterpieces from the Song, Ming, and Yuan Dynasties every day. Park recalls fondly that, "Viewing these paintings of the masters of the past at the National Palace Museum of Taiwan, I thought they were more than paintings. Personally, seeing these artworks varying from as small as a handscroll to as large as size several hundreds or thousands, I got an immense emotional shock and cried non-stop for days. Back in Korea I had egotistically thought I had achieved a certain level of success. However, in comparison with these masterpieces, I felt like my efforts could not even be called 'paintings' ... they seemed dwarfed. After crying for two or three days, I—after being half-conscious—came to a sudden awakening. I decided to start over."[2] This is how Park Dae-sung recollected his experience of a personal epiphany and mellowing of his past hubris— that viewing these works of genius from the past pushed him to change direction and further develop his style and approach to painting. Since that moment of clarity and humbled by ancient Asian masters, he practiced what he learned through this experience: to …... Park moved to Seoul after returning from Taiwan in 1975, expanding his area of activity. In 1979, he married the artist Jeong Mi-yeon, who had and continues to be his enduring companion in both life and art. In the subsequent years, Park crisscrossed the country seeking out scenic mountains and rivers and dedicated himself to sketching bucolic vistasin Korea. He was able to execute small paintings on the spot, but for larger works he made sketches at the scene that he transferred to the final surfaces in his studio.

 

(2) Second Phase (1979–1988): Artistic Exploration (or: Phase II)  

 

The early 1980s saw the rise of the democratization movement in Korea and the hosting of the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul when the authoritarian government was replaced by an elected party, thus sparking heated debates over globalization across the nation’s political, economic, and cultural sectors. A once closed and undemocratic society quickly moved to open up and reform at a remarkable pace. At the same time, efforts to more fully describe the Korean identity grew in intensity and sincerity. An era of private art exhibitions opened in the Korean art world and with information on global artistic trends leaking in through the media on the occasion of the Seoul Olympic Games, the new dictum "What is Korean is what can be most global" gained traction. Artists working within Korean painting traditions suffered an identity crisis in the face of contemporaneous Western art and accordingly sought to cultural and ideological change which encroached on any  discussions over the possible pluralityof "Korean painting." ManyKorean artists of the time strove to build an identity for Korean painting, denoting a particular style of art that they saw rooted in the principles of traditional painting but that at same time absorbed some imported  contemporary aesthetic trends and styles. In line with this, the term dongyanghwa ("Oriental painting") that had been introduced by the Japanese colonialists on the occasion of the 1st Joseon Art Exhibition was replaced with hangukwa ("Korean painting") in the 1983 revised edition of the government’s official art textbooks. At this time, the quest for a fundamentally Korean form of painting that had built up during the suppression of the Japanese colonial era (1910–1945), was being slaked through diverse forms of expression: ink wash paintings of urban scenes and abstract images; real-view paintings of Korean landscapes; the restoration of Korean color painting and folk painting; and a hybrid genre of ink and color painting using acrylic colors that was actively being adopted by young artists in the late 1980s. Sosan's paintings executed during this period eloquently embody the concerns and struggles of this era. Examples include Mountain Valley in Autumn, Frosty Forest, Sunrise Peak, Eulsukdo Island, High Summer, and Namhangang River. These artworks of Park’s offered fresh inspirations and future guidance for young artists who were vacillating between the idealistic principles of the past and the evolving aesthetic principles of the present. 

 

Winning the Top Award at the JoongAng Fine Arts Prize

 

Park Dae-sung first caught the attention of the national art community when he won second prize with his work Mountain Valley in Autumn at the initial JoongAng Fine Arts Prize. This competition organized by the media group JoongAng Group pioneered private art contests in Korea. Recognizing the significance of the event, many of the leading artists of the day participated as members of its operation and evaluation committees. They included Jang U-seong, Park No-su, Gwon Ok-yeon, Lee Gyeong-seong, Choi Yeong-rim, Yun Myeong-no, Choi Jong-tae, Yu Jun-sang, Oh Gwang-su, and Lee Dae-won. Park’s Mountain Valley in Autumn daringly apply axe-cut texture strokes (斧劈皴) for the expression of rocks and assumed a bold composition centralizing a waterfall, clearly demonstrating the artist's audacious personality. At the 2nd JoongAng Fine Arts Prize one year later, Park Dae-sung took home first prize with Frosty Forest, a work displaying his personal style of real-view landscape painting. Considered a watershed moment in hiscareer, Frosty Forest shows distinctive characteristics that separate it from his previous works. In particular, it was distinguished by the representation of the artist's personal viewpoint, unmindful of anyone else’s evaluative standards or cultural or political prerogatives. Park went on to say, "After winning an award at the first JoongAng Fine Arts Prize, I could afford to take a step back. I made a decision to paint my own picture without being obsessed with the image of the subject. So, in order to express my dimming memories of my childhood, [in Frosty Forest] I captured the tranquil atmosphere of a late-autumn day in my hometown through a scene gradually vanishing into a thick dawn fog."[3] This personal picture, expressed as a scene of his childhood hometown, struck a chord with the evaluation committee members. Frosty Forest also displays his idiosyncratic methods of applying brushstrokes, ink tones, and colors. His works up to this point, including 1978’s Mountain Valley in Autumn, were executed within the confines of traditional landscape painting in terms of viewpoint, composition, and brushwork. In Frosty Forest the artist's subjective viewpoint and sensibility found its expression with the help of ink and color tones in a profoundly indigenous real-view landscape. The methods of expression he adopted for Frosty Forest—such as using the layered ink technique (積墨) applied with a split-tipped brush, unique brushstrokes which seem to stop but actually continue, and the soft use of colors—are primary attributes that characterize Sosan's works from 1979 to 1987. 

 

Solo Exhibition at the Ho-Am Art Museum

 

Park’s 1988 exhibition at the Ho-Am Art Museum, a gallery operated by the Korean conglomerate Samsung Group, made a considerable splash with many in the Korean art community. The grand scale of the exhibition and the novel approach Park took with the pieces installed were striking. In addition, it was then rare for a large company like Samsung to support a mid-career artist like Park Dae-sung, who was in his 40s at the time. The works displayed at the 1988 Ho-Am Art Museum exhibition were clearly distinct from those executed from 1979 to 1986. The exhibited paintings, depicting Mt. Hallasan on Jeju Island, Eulsukdo Island (an alluvial landmass formed in the lower reaches of the Nakdonggang River), and the landscape of Yangpyeong near his residence, all displayed his new style of painting. 

 

First of all, the field of vision and the range of subjects expanded. While his previous works depicted scenes from around him or a small area on famous mountains, those displayed at the Ho-Am Art Museum featured mountains and waterways from across the country. This is evidenced by such works as Sunrise Peak (a scene from Jeju Island), Eulsukdo Island (presenting an astonishing view of a reed field), High Summer (a depiction of the landscape of Yangpyeong), and Namhangang River (a tributary of the Han River). These paintings layer close, middle-range, and distant views all on a single surface, offering a vast field of vision.  

 

Second, a shift in brushwork and coloration took place. While color had previously played no more than a supporting role for his ink, their positions were reversed in the works for the 1988 exhibition: Ink lines framework the flamboyant performance of color. Long brushstrokes were primarily applied instead of his previously favored short strokes, and his dry, rough strokes were replaced with wet. Breaking from his previous method of using dots of color for emphasis, a smearing technique (渲染) took center stage while actively applying color spreads and stains. The flamboyant and refreshing color palette perfectly blended with the ink lines, giving rise to a simple depiction of the subject. These characteristics suggested a border identity straddling East Asian ink and color painting and Western-style watercolor painting. 

 

Third, the range of painting mediums widened. Conventional materials for ink wash painting include paper, ink, Eastern colors, glue, and alum. Park audaciously used Western watercolors and acrylic paints that had higher chroma than typical colors available in East Asia. He successfully incorporated these unconventional materials together with ink, an experiment which was made possible by his thorough understanding of their distinctive ocular qualities and his sophisticated color theory. Surface materials were no longer limited to paper: Park turned to a type of cotton cloth used for the screen in movie theaters. He comments on this process with: "I thought large-scale paintings were the only way to go for an exhibition at a gallery spanning 650 pyeong [approximately 2,100 square meters]. However, it was hard to find paper larger than size 100. Thinking hard about a solution, I went to Dongdaemun Market and bought some projection screen cloth. Two hundred fifty centimeters wide, the cloth could be cut as long as I wished the surface to be. I applied a mixture of glue and aluminum pigment to control its absorbency and performed the painting."[4] This shows Sosan's boldness in utilizing materials and forming artistic expressions. Within the 10-month preparation period, Park Dae-sung successfully accomplished the task of filling the 650 pyeong space At the same time, he mastered innovative materials and created another new style of painting. He adds, "My wife, a Western painting specialist, provided significant help in my understanding of the properties of watercolors and acrylic colors."[5]

 

Another notable paradigm shift creatively for Park was changing the canvas size.  His previous paintings had been relatively small comparatively and also diverse in their composition, however starting with his 1988 exhibits, this artwork was realized on mostly large and horizontal canvases. Park related, "The Korean art world was very conservative at the time, so large-scale solo exhibitions were mainly reserved for the celebration of leading painters of the past. After personally observing the works of past masters, I developed a strong determination that someday I would take on the challenge of executing large paintings. When I found myself in a situation that required me to produce works that could fill a spacious gallery within a given time limit, I took it as an opportunity to do what I had determined: work larger. I didn’t think I could produce enough vertically oriented and average-size works to fill a 650-pyeong area."[6] This demonstrates Park's keen awareness of spatiality and how to best manage the parameters of a gallery or museum milieu, not only in terms of controlling painting surfaces but also the overall exhibition space. Among the 1988 exhibits, Sunrise Peakreceived particular public and critical attention. Measuring 302 x 592 centimeters, dark ink lines and light color hues depict reed stalks in the foreground pushed downward by the wind. In the middle ground are the ocean and Sunrise Peak itself. The rock formation is dyed without ink outlines (沒骨) in order to disperse the attention and the buildings in the background are depicted with maximum use of perspective to emphasize the sense of distance. Sunrise Peakcannot be clearly categorized as either East Asian ink wash painting with light color or Western watercolor painting. Color plays too great a role to call it an ink and light color painting, but the skillful application of ink lines stands out too much to place it in the category of watercolor painting. Park Dae-sung recounts, "With the schedule for the exhibition set, I went to Jeju to capture the seascapes of the island in painting. Over a stay of more than a month, I visited different places to sketch or draw. One day, I could not go out because of a typhoon. My temporary studio in a rented shanty was in the middle of a reed field. On that stormy day, I saw a view of Sunrise Peak through the window of my studio and the thrashing movements of the reed stalks, an impressive scene that was carved into my mind. ... I took out my tools and hastily captured the fleeting emotions of the moment. Returning to my studio [in Seoul], I tried to transfer the picture onto a bigger surface, but the studio was too small. I took four individual pieces of cotton cloth measuring 302 x 150 centimeters, painted on them, and then put them together to create Sunrise Peak."[7] The scene Park Dae-sung painted for Sunrise Peak is one that occurred spontaneously. Only those who are constantly thinking about what they seek to express and how to express it can capture scenes like this. Even when these types of opportunistic emotions are aroused in the mind of an artist, only those who have the required skill can express it in art. Otherwise, it becomes nothing but a mental image soon to dissipate. Park Dae-sung has shown an unshakable commitment to artistic exploration and creation, and also the aesthetic sensitivity needed to find beauty even in small passing moments. Personal qualities like these not only underpinned the creation of Sunrise Peak, but have enabled him to capture further artistic opportunities and convert them into great works of art. 

 

(3)  Third Phase (1989–2001): Travelling in the East and West

 

As explicated in the previous section, the 1988 solo exhibition at the Ho-Am Art Museum was a significant moment in Sosan's artistic career. It proved his outstanding skill as an artist and solidified his standing within the art community. It also provided a financial basis for him to fully dedicate himself to his creative efforts. What is most important, however, is the transformation in his painting style that followed this exhibition. His expression of the Korean ethos was strengthened. Furthermore, as a result of a series of overseas travels in areas along the Silk Road, exotic subjects started to appear. The former change is manifested in works such as Autumn, Eulsukdo Island, Auspicious Rains, Tranquility, Guilin, and Mt. Baekdusan. The latter appears in The Himalayas, Kashmir, The Taj Mahal, The Silk Road, and A Uyghur. In the latter examples, the artist's interpretation of a subject derived from his sketches on the spot is still so well grounded that the finished work does not fall into the trap of simply indulging in the uniqueness of its subject. In other words, the artist prioritized the evocation of the emotional state of identifying with the spirit of the subject rather than merely presenting its appearance. It is also important to note that in this period Park started to pay increasing attention to incorporating calligraphy into his artwork and also started employing traditional craftworks as subjects. Examples imbued with these principles and stylistics include Clear Sounds, At Dawn, Quince, Plant, A Bright Moon at Bulguksa Temple, A Thousand Year Gaze at a Mountain, Bulguksa Temple in Snow, A Lighted Grotto, Mt. Geumgangsan, Mt. Bukansan, Byeongsan Seowon Neo-Confucian Academy, Bunhwangsa Temple, Poseokjeong Site,Neither Scripture Nor Calligraphy, Ancient Aesthetics, Scholarly Scent, and Ancient Horse. 

 

Travels along the Silk Road 

 

A solo exhibition held at the Gana Art Center in 1990 displayed a number of paintings dealing with exotic scenes from Park's travels in areas along the Silk Road and others from his domestic journeys. The exhibited works dealt with famous mountains and rivers, traditional markets, historic sites, rural towns, and other sites at home and abroad that he observed during his extensive wandering. In particular, his overseas travels to areas on the Silk Road and to North Korean mountains such as Mt. Geumgangsan and Mt. Baekdusan after the 1988 Ho-Am Art Museum exhibition brought about another creative shift in his painting style and cultural outlook. Among the works exhibited in 1990 were some done using techniques similar to those from the 1988 exhibition, including Spring, Phoenix Tree, and Kunming. However, paintings such as Autumn, Eulsukdo Island, Auspicious Rains, Tranquility, Guilin, and Mt. Baekdusan featured a considerable departure from the previous paintings both in terms of brush and ink techniques and in the use of color. Dense ink and dry brushstrokes were more actively employed and the image for an object was initially formed using the layered ink technique and then finished with light color. Low-chroma rather than intense colors were primarily used, and a sense of depth was created through ink washes in varying densities. Park explains, "After the Ho-Am Art Museum exhibition, all the exhibited works were sold out and commissions for new works poured in. As the breadwinner for my family, I had no choice but to keep painting pictures that could appeal to the public, but I suddenly felt a rush of skepticism about what I was doing."[8] This indicates the emotional conflict he experienced between his artistic aspirations and need for economic security. Taking note of Sosan's internal struggle, his wife Jeong Mi-yeon advised, "Do the work you want to do."[9] Jeong's advice played a critical role in turning Park back to an integral form of real-view landscape painting dependent on ink and light color compositions. This transformation was demonstrated in the paintings displayed at his solo exhibition in 1994 where exhibited works generally featured light colors, short but strong brushstrokes in dense ink, and rough lines produced with a dry brush. The foreign landscapes of pan-Asia and figures captured in such works as The Himalayas, Kashmir, The Taj Mahal, The Silk Road, and A Uyghur were striking. These works Park Dae-sung created based on his Silk Road journeys started in 1988 manifested his unique brushstrokes and delivered a strong sense of atmosphere. 

 

After his participation in an art trip to areas along the Silk Road organized by the JoongAng Group in 1988, Park made another seven trips to the region. These sessions of travel sketching expanded the depth and breadth of his work, particularly in terms of its subjects and themes. Park went on to say, "I painted a lot of deserts, high mountains, and snowy mountains. As I love mountains, I have been willing to take the trouble to visit them in person, whether they are located at home or abroad. I went to the Middle East, including Egypt and Iran, Venice [in Italy], and China. The most memorable episode from these travels was my visit to a mountainous area near the Kunlun Mountains. The people living there called their place of residence a 'primitive belt'."[10] In these pristine but foreign environments, Park Dae-sung was inspired by new ways of life, simple and not too mindful of things like what they wear and where they sleep. Watching their simple but peaceful life, he realized that he could find what he wanted to find where he originally were, not somewhere distant. His Silk Road travels must have served as an opportunity for Park to look back on the fundamentals of his life and work. Another thing to note about this period is the appearance of calligraphy in his works. 

 

Meeting with Li Keran

 

With the support of a Korean company, Park Dae-sung gained an opportunity in 1988 to go to China and meet a great and lauded Chinese painter of the time, Li Keran. Looking through the catalogue from the 1988 Ho-Am Art Museum exhibition, Li advised him, "Painting starts from calligraphy. You should practice calligraphy diligently. Also, prioritize ink. Ink should take center stage in a painting."[11] Along with his Silk Road travels, the contact with Li Keran brought home to Sosan the significance of calligraphy and ink. He related, "During one of my Silk Road trips, I encountered pictographs. Attracted by their unique forms, I painted them according to their lines. When I later went to China, I got a hold of an old book on ancient Chinese pictographs at a library in Beijing. That is when I started studying calligraphy in earnest. The message from Li Keran of emphasizing the importance of calligraphy and ink was carved deeply in my mind, and I was mesmerized by the charm of pictographs. At a time when others were busy adopting color into their artwork, I took a course in the opposite direction toward ink."[12] This is how Sosan developed his fixation on ink and Chinese pictographs. It testifies to his outstanding ability to explore the fundamentals of art and practice and how he learned these skills as they benefitted his creative practice. The works he did afterwards, such as Clear Sounds, At Dawn, Quince, and Plant, featured calligraphy along with painting. Poems delivering the artist's emotions were positioned within each work and written in different styles. The painting, calligraphy, and poetry all affixed on the same surface speak in a single harmonious voice. At Dawn is an outstanding example in this respect. Becoming an artist means being destined to pursue one's own way in solitude and isolation and how to express what has been learned through one's own artistic language. According to the theory of traditional Asian painting, artists are required to continue cultivating their minds and bodies until they discover the principles of the world. An ultimate return to nature is the principal rule underlying the theory of traditional Asian painting, and Park Dae-sung was internalizing this overriding principle. 

 

Stay in New York City 

 

After the completion of his exhibition in 1994, Park went to New York City, considered one important center for contemporary art. He explains, "I had seen high mountains and deep valleys and seen the start and end of life. So, I was urged to go to New York City, which is—as people say—the center of contemporary art and a city at the forefront of development."[13] In New York City, Park came into contact with a wide range of diverse artworks and came to the realization that what matters is the artist's openness and creativity. He remembers, "The winter in New York City was freezing cold. What I was desperately searching for while staying in SoHo, a Mecca for contemporary artists at the time, turned out to be—ironically enough—the realization that what I was already doing is new and what I need to do is paint in my own style."[14] The experience in New York City would transform and then reaffirm Sosan's perception of his purposes as an artist: to remain true to one’s métier and cultural influences. He returned to Korea less than one year later, convinced more than ever of his unique path. . Only after leaving home, did he develop an eye for Korean motifs and indigenous concepts which pulled him closer to what he thought was his true self. According to Park, it was at that moment that he developed his firm belief that ink and brush are the best drawing mediums because they embody the national spirit that has been transmitted from generation to generation.[15]

 

Bulguksa Temple and Mt. Geumgangsan 

 

Returning from New York City in 1995, Park wished to find a place to shelter from the hustle and bustle of urban life and concluded that such a sanctuary would allow him to fully dedicate himself to producing more creative work. He started to stay in Gyeongju, the one-time capital of the Silla Kingdom close to his hometown of Cheongdo. Rich in attractive Buddhist sites and beautiful natural scenery, Gyeongju reawakened his passion for artmaking, though still fresh with his experiences in Asia and North America that buoyant his resolve to highly localize his practice. The result of this rediscovery was matched with enthusiasm for the creation of work that was made public at a solo exhibition held in 1996. Color had almost disappeared in the works on display here, ink became deeper and darker, and the brushstrokes had grown more robust. Among them are A Bright Moon at Bulguksa Temple, A Thousand Year Gaze at a Mountain, and Bulguksa Temple in Snow, where "spirit resonance and vitality" (氣韻生動) can immediately be felt through energetic brushstrokes and stable compositions that take control of the vast surfaces. The middle ground was left empty in all three works, enhancing the sense of space and the viewer's concentration. They are masterpieces born out of Sosan's dedicated observation of Bulguksa Temple over the course of a full year. Another masterpiece shown at the exhibition is A Lighted Grotto. Characterized by its vertical composition, A Lighted Grotto presents Bulguksa Temple at the bottom of the picture. Rough texture strokes and ink gradations in the middle ground give expression to Mt. Tohamsan, while a lit-up grotto expressing Sukguram is seen above. Past Bulguksa Temple, drawn only in ink lines, and along a long narrow staircase running amid a forest rendered in strong brushstrokes is found an image of the Buddha welcoming people with the light of dharma. 

 

Re-interpretation of Folk Craftworks 

 

Changing gears again, the works displayed at Park’s solo exhibition held in April 2001 in celebration of the opening of the Amun Art Center included real-view paintings such as Mt. Geumgangsan (a depiction of the four seasons expressed on Mt. Geumgangsan on a surface measuring 21.5 x 600 centimeters), Mt. Bukansan, Seonggyungwan Academy, Hyangwonjeong Pavilion, and Byeongsan Seowon Neo-Confucian Academy. However, there were also paintings of historic sites from Silla, including Bunhwangsa Temple and Poseokjeong Site. These grant works indicate how Park did not simply stop drawing pictures of famous landscapes from his own viewpoint nor did he lose his familiar brush techniques, he maximized his own indigeneity: going in search of the roots of Korean history and traditional aesthetics. These efforts are also visible in such works as Ancient Aesthetics, Scholarly Scent, and Ancient Horse. In these, Park took traditional craftworks as his subject matter and added writing to the image in an attempt to suggest his own form of literati painting. He varied the content of the writing and the style of the calligraphy as well as subject matter in each work in reflection of his different ideas. They can be understood as modern manifestations of the spirit of traditional literati painting. The ability to utilize diverse brush and ink techniques and grasp the spirit of a subject that he had gained from his longstanding practice of landscape painting was combined with the art of calligraphy to heighten the dignity of the finished works. His masterly use of the brush allowing a free movement between heavy and vigorous strokes and fine and delicate lines imbues these works with an animating energy and captures the attention of the viewer. Clusters of contrasting qualities—the rough with the soft, the strong with the weak, the deep with the light, and the full with the empty—do not conflict here, but form a perfect harmony. It seems that any object, from as large as a mountain range to as small as an overlooked insect is treated equally without discrimination in Sosan's artwork once it has entered his mind as a subject. This open-mindedness found its best expression in Neither Scripture Nor Calligraphy. Park Dae-sung arranged a Buddhist statuette and a rosary bearing an image of Jesus in the lower section of the painting and set a poem conveying his emotions and the marks from his stamps in the upper part of the composition, following the typical tropes and visual motifs of a literati painting. Neither Scripture Nor Calligraphy is a telling example of Sosan's egalitarian mindset that does not place a dividing line between the East and West, between Buddhism and Christianity, or between the living and dead. Incorporating his writing and calligraphy as well, Neither Scripture Nor Calligraphy offers a clue about Sosan's ideas on life and death and about his thinking unbound by religious boundaries. This work is a clear manifestation of Sosan's artistic turn from real-view painting toward projecting his ideas and emotions onto a subject matter and giving it symbolic expression, known as xieyi ("describing the spirit of the subject" or "describing the idea of the artist"; 寫意) painting. Park Dae-sung was undergoing a transformative process of gradually perceiving, for example, famous landscapes, historic sites, and old craftworks as vehicles for the ultimate recall of human spirit.  

 

In a nutshell, the third phase of Sosan's career as described above is characterized by his entrance into a new world of artwork where poetry, calligraphy, and painting are integrated into a single entity. This arrived by way of his encounters with different cultures along the Silk Road, with the culture of Silla and its manifestation in crafts, and with renowned Korean mountains such as Mt. Baekdusan, Mt. Geumgangsan, and Mt. Hallasan. His works such as No Mind, Bunhwangsa Temple, Poseokjeong Site II, and Buddha I and II suggest that he was in the process of discovering the meaning of calligraphy. His extensive experience with travel sketching both at home and abroad and his innate passion for artistic exploration led to the development of his modern interpretation of traditional Asian aesthetics and spirit. The solo exhibition held at the Gana Art Center in May 2000 presented local landscapes from North and South Korea through the mega-sized (more than 10 meters wide) work My View of Mt. Geumgangsan. Other masterpieces displayed there include Guryongpokpo Falls, Samseonam Rock, and A Comprehensive View of Mt. Geumgangsan I and II. Guryongpokpo Falls shows massive rocks on either side of the picture with harshly cascading falls in the center in a vertical composition.[16] The rock cliffs done in powerful and energetic brushstrokes contrast with the falls expressed in just a few lines to highlight the beauty of emptiness, enhancing the tension found in the picture. The towering peaks seen in the background suggest Mt. Geumgangsan. Samseonam Rock was a popular subject for real-view painters of Joseon, and the early modern artist Byeon Gwan-sik (penname Sojeong) also drew a series of paintings focused on Samseonam Rock. Sosan's Samseonam Rock is characterized by vigorous and confident brushstrokes. Although a bridge, staircase, and buildings were added that were absent from Byeon Gwan-sik's early modern paintings of Samseonam, the magnificent spirit and appearance of the rock remains the same despite the passage of time. A Comprehensive View of Mt. Geumgangsan I and II are the result of a bold artistic experiment applying his own artistic sensibility and brush and ink techniques. In these works, Park selected particular attributes of Mt. Geumgangsan and arranged them into a single integrated picture, a vision that was made possible by his several visits to Mt. Geumgangsan and his broad experience of its spirit. 

 

(4) Fourth Phase (2001–2019): Achieving a New Form of Calligraphy and Painting Homology 

 

While many of the works from the fourth phase of his career address the origins of traditional Korea aesthetics—for example, Black Pine, A Lighted Grotto, Full Moon, and Hometown in Ink—there are also works where Park, a Catholic himself, seeks an ideological merger of Buddhism and Christianity, such as Dharma Robe, Monastic Practice, Monk Wonhyo, Monk Hyecho, and An Meditational Walk in the Shadow of Pine Trees. Such works as Pilbong Peaks at Mt. Cheongnyangsan, Diamond Deva, Playful Interplay of Ink and Brush, and Seal Script: Once Upon a Time were intended as homage to the Silla calligrapher Kim Saeng. Song of Solgeo was created as a painterly space for encountering the Silla painter Solgeo through the means of brushstrokes and ink tones. Works like Style of Calligraphy and Painting, Bulguksa Temple, Snow at Dawn, Old Plum Tree, Dokdo Island, and Mt. Namsan in Gyeongju show the pinnacle of his personal form of xieyi (寫意), or "describing ideas." 

 

Hall of Inconvenience 

 

After shuttling for years between Seoul and Gyeongju, Park Dae-sung permanently transferred his atelier to Gyeongju in 2001. He first secured a place at Gyodong in the area, and then in 2005 settled in the Samneung Forest area at the foot of Mt. Namsan. He clearly expressed his deep affection for Gyeongju in an interview in 1988. He related, "Although I am living and working in Yangpyeong, Seoul, I originally wanted to go to Gyeongju—specifically, Mt. Namsan in Gyeongju. It is close to my hometown, and [I believe] the historic relics and Buddhist sites at every corner of the city would add depth and vitality to my painting."[17] Sosan seemed to move his studio at 10-year intervals. He prioritizes the inspiration and energy he can gain from the natural environment of a new place over the convenience available from a more permanent residence. Park selected sites for his studio in close proximity to a mountain, forest, or river. Living close to nature, he could intimately feel the changes between day and night and in the seasons and select his subject matter from nature. He relates, "I prefer a nature-friendly place with little human traffic for the site of my studio. I only keep a minimum of essentially necessary things inside it. Instead, I pay careful attention to the construction of a garden. I plant trees and flowers and place oddly shaped rocks and pagodas so that I can select subject matter from my garden. When the place no longer offers me inspiration, I move to another, and this naturally brings about a change in my painting."[18] The building at the foot of Mt. Namsan that Park moved into in 2005 was given the name "Hall of Inconvenience." The building did not have water or sewer connections, but he chose this old structure for his studio without any renovations. He says, "With physical inconveniences, the spirit can stay fully awake and be freed from laziness. I have built up my artistic persona drawing on the inconvenience caused by the absence of my left arm, but I still find myself relying on conveniences. I take the trouble to use an inconvenient place as my studio so that I can keep my spirit sharp."[19] This confers that his move to Gyoengju was the direct cause of the subsequent transformation of his painting and that the transformation was not an accident, but a natural result of this indominable decision-making. 

 

Solo Exhibition at the National Art Museum of China

 

Park Dae-sung held a solo exhibition in China in May 2011, displaying paintings completed between  2005 to 2011. It was a large-scale exhibition held in a 600-pyeong (about 2,000 square meters) space in the National Art Museum of China. It is very rare for the National Art Museum of China to host a solo exhibition for a foreign artist. The works on display, including Black Pine, A Lighted Grotto, Full Moon, Hometown in Ink, and many others, were highly acclaimed in China, the country where ink wash painting originated. The exhibits describing Korean cultural elements and nature in skillful brushwork that freely alternates between magnificent and uninhibited strokes and the detailed and careful lines depending on the artist's conception, all demonstrated Sosan's unique sense of aesthetics clearly distinct from that of traditional Chinese ink wash painting. His long-running efforts to identify the origins of Korean traditions were naturally reflected in the content and form of these paintings. In this sense, the fourth phase of his career can be characterized as a period of the establishment of his own painting style. After decades of mental and physical dedication to the practice of ink wash painting, the direction of the way forward was becoming clearer during this period. Things that he had seen, painted, and experienced so far became manifested as an integral entity within his works. He relates, "I have always pursued things that are spiritual. I have taken the trouble to read texts by philosophers from the East and West, met renowned contemporary scholars and thinkers, and adopted the past masters as my teachers to copy their works."[20]This reveals Sosan's artistic worldview based on the principle of "learning from the past to create the new." An artist's vision is central to the construction of his or her body of work since it impacts not only the thematic message it conveys, but also the selection of its subject matter, materials, and techniques. Park says, "My experience in Taiwan encouraged me to think about the spirit of Asia, and my stay in New York City offered me an opportunity to learn about the West's modernism. [Through this process,] I naturally came to know about cultural diversity and some of the artistic characteristics of the East and West."[21] This understanding has thus far served as a guide for the construction of his unique artistic sensibility. His stays in foreign countries and his lifelong self-study would not have transformed into a deeper understanding of tradition or global modernity and the arts of the East and West without Sosan's active and open attitude toward the new cultural experiences, despite how cosmopolitan heft or multicultural influences on those travels are undetectable. This mindset is expressed within his artwork through such qualities as boldness, flexibility, delicacy, and sharpness, as the works of an artist are a mirror of their creator’s personality. The sections so far covered have sufficiently testified to his strong conviction and power of execution. His openness and flexibility will be explored below. 

 

Buddhism as tonic of life

 

Elements from Buddhism are an integral part of Park's paintings. From the very start of his career, Buddhist temples and other relics were treated as an aspect of the landscapes in his paintings. This easily gives rise to the assumption that Park is a Buddhist, but in fact he was baptized a Catholic in the late 1960s. As to the reason why Buddhism holds such an important position in his artwork, he alluded, "While sketching famous mountains and rivers after staring my career as a landscape painter, I realized that there is nothing much left in Korean landscapes if Buddhist temples are excluded. Buddhist temples are a popular subject in Chinese landscape painting as well. Like others my age in those days, I spent a lot of time on the grounds of a Buddhist temple as a child."[22] After returning from his stay in New York City in the mid-1990s, the appearance of Buddhist elements in his paintings became more evident. He produced large-scale paintings of Bulguksa Temple in spring, winter, and at night, and most of his works on Mt. Geumgangsan include a Buddhist temple as an element. This open-mindedness in the selection of his themes and subjects is closely associated with his conceptions about religion. He states, "I have nothing particularly against religions [other than the one I believe in]. There is nothing wrong with me as a Catholic drawing Buddhist relics. Just maintain a sincere faith in your own religion and practice it in everyday life, and that is it. Travelling in many parts of the world, I have seen and drawn religious and historical relics of diverse peoples. From these relics were extracted their individual spirits and aesthetics."[23] This indicates that his extensive exploration of Korean heritage sites and objects was aimed at clarifying the spirit and aesthetics of the Korean people. During 2011–2012, Park not only produced Dharma Robe, a component of the monastic dress of Monk Seongcheol, but also several other paintings dealing with the Buddha's teachings and great Buddhist monks, such as Monastic Practice, Monk Wonhyo, Monk Hyecho, and A Meditational Walk in the Shadow of Pine Trees. When he was planning for a painting on the life of Monk Seongcheol (which later resulted in Dharma Robe), he went as far as studying Buddhist philosophy, spending nights in the room where Monk Seongcheol used to stay, and performed interviews with people who had been around him. His inquisitive and explorative attitude toward his artwork underpinned the production of other paintings as well—for example, The Taj Mahal and The Himalayas from his 1994 exhibition and the 2001 painting Neither Scripture Nor Calligraphy. Starting in 2010, his passion for calligraphy even took on the character of asceticism: Park utilized calligraphy as a tool for the cultivation of his mind and body. He included phrases in his paintings from the Bible and Buddhist scripture, and also from other classic philosophical texts, enhancing the proportion of calligraphy in his artwork. For example, he featured a rubbed inscription of a stele as the background of Dharma Robe and he wrote teachings of the Buddha in Korean letters on either side of the surface in A Meditational Walk in the Shadow of Pine Trees. The writing in diverse script styles according to the theme of a painting is a great pleasure to both read and see. 

 

Training in Calligraphy and a Commemorative Exhibition for Kim Saeng 

 

At the Commemorative Exhibition for the 1,300th Anniversary of the Birth of Kim Saeng held at the Seoul Arts Center in December 2012, Sosan's calligraphy was recognized in its own right. Here, Park displayed calligraphic works imitating the script styles of renowned calligraphers (such as Kim Saeng, Kim Jeong-hui, Su Shi, and Mao Zedong) as well as artworks integrating painting and calligraphy into a picture (such as Pilbong Peak at Mt. Cheongnyangsan and Diamond Deva). The highlights of the exhibition were Sosan's Playful Interplay between Ink and Brush and Seal Script: Once Upon a Time. As its title suggests, Playful Interplay between Ink and Brush is a spirited expression of brushstrokes and ink tones borrowing the form of hieroglyphic characters. In Seal Script: Once Upon a Time Sosan presented his unique strong, sharp handwriting style that evokes the image of a carved inscription on stone. According to Park, when encountering primitive rock carvings and ancient pictographic characters he was immediately mesmerized not by their meaning, but by their form. After learning about the process of how pictorial symbols developed into written words, Park Dae-sung grasped the notion of calligraphy’s artistic transformation from figurative to abstract expression. He had long practiced the script style of the foremost late-Joseon calligrapher Kim Jeong-hui (penname Chusa), ultimately discovering how he held the brush, and he then adopted the method as his own. The moment the employed Chusa's brush grip, Park picked up additional strength and stability in his brushstrokes. He describes, "A brush is a writing implement whose conical head is made by gathering tens of thousands of hairs. A brush represents the concentration of the mind to me."[24] Park drew each line of a character with all his mind and energy concentrated on the tip of his brush, like carving stone with a chisel. Park Dae-sung explains, "Grasping the brush and tilting it at a 15-degree angle, I move the brush as if its tip is fixed at the center of the world. I focus all of my energy on the tip of the brush. I did not invent this way of holding the brush: I am simply copying Chusa Kim Jeong-hui's method. I strain my center of energy (danjeon) and breathe through it in and out. The brush and paper are soft materials, but I change my perception and draw as if I am etching with a diamond knife on a granite surface. I pour out a great deal of energy in order to imbue the written characters with both energy and meaning."[25] The vigorous brushstrokes he practiced in calligraphy have played a central role in his painting as well. His paintings from this period do not include any redundancy, and no attempt is made to deceive the viewer's eyes through flamboyant coloration or detailed description. He created paintings relying purely on brushstrokes and ink tones on the surface of the paper. This is to say that his dedication to calligraphic training and methodological and perceptual changes brought about transformations in his artistic world. The success of ink wash painting depends on the use of the brush. This is why brush techniques come before ink techniques in ink wash painting theory. It seems appropriate to say that he now "writes" a picture rather than "paints" it. Any dividing line between calligraphy and painting was erased in his art. This echoes the "homology of calligraphy and painting" (書畫同體) notion expounded by the Chinese calligrapher Zhang Yangyuan. Park relates, "When my mind is unstable, I do calligraphy. I imitate diverse script styles of the past or freely write what I wish. Then, I feel my eyes opening. I undergo mental transformations through calligraphy. Principles for the operation of the universe and everything in it are all reflected in the art of calligraphy. In calligraphy, all painting and design is integrated."[26] This way of thinking is delivered through High Mountains and Long Rivers and The Four Seasons of Mt. Cheongnyangsan. Park Dae-sung was beginning to comprehend through calligraphy the spiritual origins of painting, or something beyond its form that he had long sought. 

 

Opening Exhibition for the Solgeo Art Museum

 

In August 2015, a celebratory exhibition was held for the opening of the Solgeo Art Museum in Gyeongju. The museum was founded with Sosan's donation of 830 pieces to the city of Gyeongju in Gyeongsangbuk-do Province. The donated artworks consisted of 617 of his own pieces (435 paintings and 182 calligraphy works) and 213 objects that he had collected, including ink sticks, inkstones, and ceramic wares. The 2015 Solgeo Art Museum opening exhibition provided a golden opportunity to appreciate a wide variety of works by Park Dae-sung within a single space. The donated items were mostly done from 1995 (when he began his temporary stays in Gyeongju after his return from New York City) to the early half of 2015. In the second half of 2015, after the Solgeo Art Museum exhibition, Sosan's brushstrokes gained greater energy and confidence. An example is Fighting Bulls, which captures the moment that two bulls lock horns for battle. His hometown of Cheongdo has a traditional reputation for producing superior oxen, and bullfighting has been transmitted there as a popular folk game. Park Dae-sung grew up watching these bullfights. Done in the style of ink wash painting, Fighting Bulls conveys a sense of excitement and tension that only those who have been there on the spot can grasp. It seems that the contest expressed in the picture represents a struggle Park experiences within himself. It does not feel like an expression of competitiveness with others, but as an unwavering commitment by the artist to overcome the idleness growing within himself or the conventional conception of art within his mind with a view to ultimately constructing his own artistic vision. Sosan's feelings about the Silla painter Solgeo were made evident in his Song of Solgeo, displayed at the Commemorative Exhibition for Sosan's 50 Years of Painting held in 2015. Depicting pine trees powerfully stretching into the skies and imaginatively formed rocks, Song of Solgeo is a representation of the garden of his studio in Gyeongju. Behind the row-rising fence made from bound strands of reed stalks, the Samneung Forest stands like a guardian. Among the pine trees planted in the garden is the prominent presence of a few bamboo culms. The softly textured round rock and the sharp-edged one in the picture actually existed in his garden. The pond, represented in simplified lines, and the two white herons floating in it are from Sosan's imagination. Defined by the harmony created by the mixture of opposite forces, the large and small, rough and soft, and straight and curvy, elements of reality and fantasy are closely interwoven together. The title of the work, Song of Solgeo, indicates that the Silla painter Solgeo is a figure of immense importance for Park Dae-sung. Legend has it that Solgeo's painting of a pine tree, Old Pine Tree, was so full of vitality that it attracted real birds. A stone platform supporting the round rock set in the center of the picture bears an inscription reading "The story of the Silla painter Solgeo that I was told by senior members of my family as a child was a point of departure for my career as a painter. For my entire life of over 70 years—whether by accident or by choice—I have always lived around pine trees. I have never abandoned my mental association with Solgeo throughout my career. My garden became subject matter for my paintings, and my childhood dream came true. By painting my own Old Pine Tree, I have realized my dream. To it, I have added my aspirations for an ideal world through the purity delivered by the herons. This is by the Silla Person Dae-sung on a very hot day in the Eulmi year."[27]

 

This fourth phase of Park Dae-sung's career is characterized by his development of a modern form of the traditional canon "calligraphy and painting homology." His works from this period exhibit a set of distinctive features that can be summarized as the persistent pursuit of the origins of Korean aesthetics, the prioritization of the expression of the spirit over the deliverance of a likeness, and the continuous exploration into the spirit of literati painting. Each of these three characteristics is elaborated below. 

 

First, Park Dae-sung worked to find within tradition the spiritual foundations of Korean aesthetics. With a long-standing affection for the landscape of his hometown and the cultural legacy of Silla, Park Dae-sung adopted these elements as his subject matter, representing the spirit of Silla through his idiosyncratic brushwork. His sincere efforts to grasp the ethos and aesthetics of Silla are shown through works such as The World of the Buddha, Dreams of A Thousand Years of Silla: A World of Perfect Unity, Religious Exultation, and Ancient Scent. He explains, "I started by painting the appearance of an object. After crisscrossing the world and visiting various museums, art galleries, traditional markets, and famous mountains, however, I realized that each country has its own culture and cultural characteristics, and I have tried to discover their spiritual foundations."[28] While representing the appearance of an object in a painting is a sensory and intuitional task, expressing its spiritual aspects is something that can only be accomplished by going beyond its physical image and grasping its essence. His move to Gyeongju was a reflection of Sosan's firm commitment to returning as close as possible to his origins in order to discover his spiritual roots. Black Moon and Deep Moon are depictions of a moonlit night in Gyeongju done eight to nine years into his permanent stay in the former Silla capital. These paintings resulted from his accumulated observations and feelings of the city and sustained pursuit of the spiritual origins of Korean aesthetics. 

 

Second, Park Dae-sung gradually came to regard subject matter not as an object to paint for the sake of its appearance, but as a symbolic tool for conveying his ideas. One example is the expression of the traditional ideology of the "unity of heaven, earth, and humanity." After settling in Gyeongju, Sosan developed an interest in the heaven-earth-humanity unity ideal. His interest in the trinity of heaven, earth, and humanity was most evident in his landscape paintings. He symbolically expressed the idea of this unity through the composition of paintings taking on multiple perspectives. To expound upon the heaven-earth-humanity unity, he applied the respective symbols of the three component entities—a circle (○), square (□), and triangle (△)—to form the layout of a painting. He says, "After coming to Gyeongju, I made a break with my previous principles for the composition of a landscape painting and tried to apply the symbolic shapes of a circle, square, and triangle to the composition in accordance with the idea of the heaven-earth-humanity unity. That is to say, the symbols of the heaven-earth-humanity unity idea brought about a change in the composition of my painting."[29]An example of this is Heaven, Earth, and Humanity. The painting was done after several visits to Mt. Geumgangsan during different seasons, creating dozens of sketches on the spot, and consequently thoroughly coming to understand the mountain’s characteristics. In Heaven, Earth, and Humanity, the peaks of Mt. Geumgangsan are depicted as soaring from the bottom of the surface toward the skies with a maximized application of a bird's eye view perspective, imbuing the scene with a strong sense of unfamiliarity. Sosan conceived his plan to use this kind of perspective and composition during his travel sketching: "I visited Shilin, or the Stone Forest, in southern China and saw a dense cluster of rock formations. I thought it might be a good idea to compose a painting of Mt. Geumgangsan based on the view of these tall rocks, and I did the painting from a point of view like a vulture looking down from above."[30] Before Heaven, Earth, and Humanity, this composition was first applied in Sosan's 2006 work Black Harmony.[31] Another painting that merits attention is The Blooming of Mt. Geumgangsan, a revision of his earlier work A Comprehensive View of Mt. Geumgangsan. The Blooming of Mt. Geumgangsan is a painting with symbolic meaning executed using a combination of empirical observation and mental imagination. The painting expresses contrasting qualities—robustness and delicateness and fullness and emptiness—using a diverse range of ink and brush techniques, but it does not appear disorderly since the elements of the picture were carefully selected and settled within a system of meaning the artist had thought out in advance. This mode of painting conforms with the East Asian xieyi ("describing ideas"; 寫意) style. TheBlooming of Mt. Geumgangsan testifies that Sosan's artwork went beyond real-view painting to enter a state of xieyi, or freestyle painting, where the artist presents individualistic conceptions rather that a realistic view of the subject matter.

 

Third, Park focused on the spirit of literati painting, a style featuring poetry, calligraphy, and painting combined onto a single surface. He adopted any objects that grabbed his attention and creatively recombined them as subject matter for his art, freely crossing the boundaries of poetry, calligraphy, and painting. For example, he executed a series of works on ceramics that came out with the title Ancient Aesthetics. He recalls that he was in his late teens when he received a piece of ceramics from a friend and developed an interest in the aesthetics of traditional clay work. The pieces in the Ancient Aesthetic series consist simply of a realistically represented pottery object with a piece of calligraphy done in a simple style, but they are distinguished by the harmonious integration of traditional aesthetics and modern interpretation. Park relates, "When I was crisscrossing the country sketching mountains and rivers, at night I visited local antique shops. Folk crafts exhibit distinctive characteristics in each region, and I started to discover traditional aesthetics through these local folk arts. As much as my situation allowed, I collected interesting crafts one by one, and these items laid the foundation for the Ancient Aesthetics series."[32] Beside these works on ceramics, there are other examples of his personal taste being transformed into painterly works: The Live Sounds series, consisting of an image borrowed from genre painting and an oddly shaped rock from his collection; the Harmonious Sounds series, presenting a combination of a folk pottery and genre painting; his bird-and-flower paintings, characterized by delicate brushstrokes and simple ink tones; and the Scent series, where a stretched out plum tree and statuette of a small boy strike a harmony with neatly written calligraphy. Anyone can develop a sense of curiosity about folk crafts, but it is not easy to convert this interest into the everyday habit of collecting them over an extended period of time. From his hobby of collecting folk crafts and the aesthetic sense he expressed through this collection, Sosan's keen eye for illuminating the ethos of Koreans of the past can be grasped. 

 

Style of Calligraphy and Painting from after the 2015 freely crosses the boundary between calligraphy and painting. Such works as Bulguksa Temple, Snow at Dawn, and Old Plum Tree can be understood as presenting the spiritual foundations of Korean aesthetics by distorting, omitting, and emphasizing the appearance of the subject matter. The way in which these works were executed indicates that creating a physical resemblance to a subject was no longer important for Park. Formal likeness was simply dealt with as one of the means through which he could convey his ideas and emotions. In Dokdo Island, juxtaposing the Korean islets of Dokdo with the image of a dragon, and Mt. Namsan, in which Silla relics are expressed using the rubbing technique within a circular composition, Park focused on creatively combining subjects within a picture to symbolically deliver his ideas. 

 

In summary, the works from the fourth period grew more natural over time: No show of forced creativity, pretentious expressiveness, or ostensible decoration is required. Park freely applies brushstrokes and ink tones in sync with the natural flow of his mind, and the resultant harmonious works lead the viewer into his world. He practiced the Confucian ideal of the "middle way" (zhongyong; 中庸) through his works, which are heavy but not dark, and lively but not light. His ink is not simply black: It is a color of great versatility that can express anything existing in the world. In his ink wash painting, a scene of a darkish moonlit night does not evoke any sense of darkness or fear, but it takes the viewer into a realm of peace, comfort, and deep contemplation.  

 

(5) Fifth Phase (2019–2020): Returning Home 

 

In 2019, Park started another studio in his hometown of Cheongdo. He is spending most of his time in his Cheongdo atelier, deep on a mountainside with no neighbors nearby. Such works as Mt. Baekdusan, Mt. Hallasan, Sunrise at Chongseokjeong Pavilion on Mt. Geumgangsan, the Mask series, and the Characters series are being continued in Cheongdo on an ongoing basis. 

 

Integration of Self and Other

 

Sosan's stay in Cheongdo is indisputably a form of self-imposed exile. Hearing my concerns about him growing lonely, he answers, "Since there is nothing else to seek pleasure from, I make paintings. Since it is lonely, I focus on painting in order to forget the loneliness."[33] It seems that he has never ceased his efforts to keep from growing complacent and is tirelessly pushing himself to the limits of creativity in his absolute solitude. There, he has nowhere to run. If he does not wish to fall, he has to spread his wings. Park carries no fear of the pain inherent in creative work, fearlessly embracing the artist’s way of life as his fate. He has produced flamboyant flowers in barren soil, the beautiful scent of which provides consolation to many souls. I have visited Park Dae-sung in Gyeongju more than 10 times for interviews, and have stayed with him for two days at a time. His everyday life as I witnessed it was nothing but self-discipline. He opens his day early in the morning by reading a prayer attached to the wall of his room, he eats simple meals, goes for a brief walk, studies, works on paintings, takes exercise, offers a nightly prayer, and then goes to sleep. He always joins his hands together in prayer when he returns to the house, even after a short walk. He is so healthy that he is still able to enjoy a rubdown with a cold towel in winter. He does not work over the night as he did when he was younger. He exercises a maximum level of restraint when it comes to food, eating only a small portion for every meal. His life seems monastic. Asked about his plan for the future of his artwork, Sosan prioritizes his attitude toward life: "What should come first is cultivating the mind and nurturing an attitude devoid of any shameful elements. My aim is to practice freedom and generosity in everyday life to the fullest. Only through this can the brush move in the right direction. I think that is the ultimate point of perfection that art should achieve. It all depends on the mind of the person who does it. Everything in the world comes from the same entity. Tree branches do not shake in the wind for no reason; everything has a cause."[34] For Park Dae-sung, any division between life and art seems meaningless now. This is manifested in the recent works displayed at the Solgeo Art Museum in September 2019. The exhibited paintings span diverse genres from landscapes, figures, history, folklore, and genre painting, and touch on various subjects from the East and West. They allow no boundaries in materials, techniques, or artistic styles. They offer a sense of maturity and magnificence, feel as sharp as a knife but as blunt as the strike of a hammer, and manifest a childlike innocence and sense of play. There is no single yardstick that can measure all of the exhibited works. Simply put, they conspire to show an artistic world of complete freedom created using a wide range of brush and ink techniques.  

 

All Ages and Cultures  

 

In three of the exhibited paintings—Mt. Baekdusan, Mt. Hallasan, and Sunrise on Chongseokjeong Pavilion on Mt. Geumgangsan—Park Dae-sung respectively painted three most spiritually exalted mountains of Korea in order to attempt an expression of the origins of the country’s national spirit. Along with some trees, Mt. Baekdusan shows huge rocks on either side of the picture in the lower section, above which are depicted waterfalls pouring down a steep cliff after running through layers of rocks in a valley. In the upper part of the picture is depicted the crater lake formed on the top of Mt. Baekdusan. In the uppermost space presumed to depict the skies are written the words of the Korean national anthem. The contrastive expression between the imposing rocks and simple trees, a preferred depiction in Sosan's artwork, adds to the charm of the painting. The bold composition that places the falls in the center of the picture resembles that of his 1978 Mountain Valley in Autumn. Visiting Mt. Baekdusan eight times and extensively sketching the mountain at first hand, Park says that he has images of major features of the mountain carved into his memory. He has described the execution of Mt. Baekdusan: "I have believed that Mt. Baekdusan is one of the mountains infused with the national spirit, and I tried to capture it in the painting."[35]

 

Mt. Hallasan is similar to Mt. Baekdusan in its composition. Mt. Hallasan, along with its crater lake, is set in the upper section while waterfalls are cascading down a craggy cliff with trees in the lower section and plants are shown on either side of the bisected picture. Its overall composition echoes that of Mt. Baekdusan, but here a bird vacantly watching the water and a handrail seen in the rocks catch the viewer’s attention. While Mt. Baekdusan imparts majestic, rough, and bold sensations, Mt. Hallasan describes the mountain as a friendly place easily accessible in everyday life. In Sunrise on Chongseokjeong Pavilion on Mt. Geumgangsan, an imaginary image of Mt. Geumgangsan as seen from the viewpoint of a fish is set within a circle in the left-hand section of the picture. On the right is depicted Chongseokjeong Pavilion and the sun rising over the East Sea. What did Park aim to achieve by doing these paintings? He relates, "I have long been identified as a landscape painter, and mountains have been the primary subject for my painting. I chose Mt. Geumgangsan, Mt. Baekdusan, and Mt. Hallasan since they are three of the most spiritually important mountains for Korean people. I attempted to succinctly deliver the Korean spirit and aesthetic through these large-scale paintings. It is still a work in progress. I will keep investigating how to convey a more symbolic sense of the national spirit across a wider surface."[36] Even aside from the quality of these works, the creation of such large-scale paintings by an artist in his mid-70s is itself eloquent testimony to the level of achievement in terms of both physical and mental power.  

 

In the Mask series, one of the highlights of the 2019 exhibition, traditional African masks are integrated with calligraphy in diverse styles. When I accompanied my father on a visit to Sosan's house in the 1990s, I saw a huge collection of African craftworks in his residence. I remember that the collected objects were mostly masks resembling a human face. This indicates that although many of the works entitled Mask are recent creations, Sosan's interest in them is a longstanding one. There are many artists who have sought inspiration in African craftworks and employed them as subject matter. However, Park Dae-sung did not simply address African masks for their exoticism as a subject: He treated them as a means to explore the spiritual origins of unique ethnic cultures. 

 

Nature and the Universe

 

The two exhibits Starlight and Arirang Starlight highlight Sosan's artistic wit, presenting pictorial images of the Korean words byeol and bit, respectively meaning "star" and "light." The Floral Characters and Characters series adopt animals, plants, and Chinese characters as their subjects and deliver a sense of fun and humor through the images of animals and plants and the styles of the calligraphy. Art can be a mirror of its creator’s nature, and such works as Tree Frog or Drunkard's Poem indicate how humorous and flexible Park Dae-sung can be as a person. Tree Frog is a calligraphic piece done in a writing style used for woodblock printing, presenting a children's story about a disobedient tree frog son who does exactly the opposite of what he is told to do by his mother. Here, Park inverted the Chinese character geo, referring to the frog son's attitude, so as to emphasize his disobedient nature. In Drunkard's Poem, Park wrote a piece by a drunkard from Joseon that details the location of each tavern at the entrance of his neighborhood. Here, Sosan wrote the calligraphy in a staggering manner analogous to a drunken walk. He says, "I found this interesting writing in a book on folk stories that were talked about among people during the Joseon era. I noted it down and wrote it here."[37] In this way, his recent calligraphic works have been jazzed up with an added dose of freedom derived from his playfulness and humor. He explains, "Painting and calligraphy are not two separate entities. Calligraphy provides the structure or skeleton, and painting is the roof or the flesh. I have constructed my own art through a novel approach to the traditional principle 'calligraphy and painting homology'. I recently thought that I have passed the stage where I need to listen to others. I have learned from ancient pictographs that a brush style is something one can create for oneself, and also deconstruct. As with painting, it is my task in calligraphy to pursue my unique style and apply it according to today’s needs. I am planning to go as far as achieving a state where calligraphy and painting are completely indistinguishable. This is how I define the modernization of art."[38] An absolute state of freedom unrestrained by anything must be a prize duly awarded to an artist who has discovered the depths of art through a lifelong exploration of painting and calligraphy. 

 

III. Characteristics of Park Dae-sung's Artwork and Its Future 

 

Park Dae-sung's artistic career, which has been addressed so far based on his artworks and personal interviews, can be summarized as below. 

 

1st Phase 

 

The first phase of his career (1945–1979) is defined by the selection of his works for the National Art Exhibition (eight times in total) and his residency in Taiwan. His formal education ended with middle school. For art education, he has learned by himself from scratch. It is a completely different career course compared to that taken by his contemporaries. For Park Dae-sung, nature is his school and the past masters are his teachers. This is evidenced by his tireless moving about: Cheongdo, Daegu, Seoul, areas along the Silk Road, New York, Gyeongju, and back to Cheongdo. His artistic wandering is still taking place. He is like the Chinese painter Qi Baishi, who was a carpenter but became one of the greatest artists of the 20th century after extensive travels. Given the artistic career he has established, it can be said that his wandering in the world is the primary element that has determined the form and content of his artwork. His selection to the National Art Exhibition a whopping eight times was simply the start of his career. Like many other painters, he could have become complacent with his initial achievement at the National Art Exhibition. However, as Seok Do-ryun advised him, Park has never stood still. Otherwise, he could not have become the artist he is today. 

 

2nd Phase 

 

His second phase (1979–1988), spanning the years from his mid-30s to mid-40s, is characterized by artistic experimentation and exploration. A period of exploration has been essential for any artist who has made meaningful achievements in art history, regardless of temporal or geographical boundaries. Park’s consecutive receipt of the highest award at the JoongAng Fine Arts Prize and the establishment of his standing in the world of contemporary art through a successful solo exhibition at the Ho-Am Art Museum can be credited to his artistic experimentation and exploration. Park broke the conventional rules of the established Korean painting community in order to adopt experimental approaches to the scale of his work and also in techniques and tools, bringing his ink wash painting into the realm of contemporary art. One example of this pioneering spirit is a provocative composition placing the subject right in the center of the picture, as exemplified in Frosty Forest and Sunrise Peak. Others include his introduction of projection screen cloth into an exhibition hall as a substitute for paper, the traditional surface material for ink wash painting, making the exhibition scene as spectacular as it could be imagined. Furthermore, he turned to Western watercolors and acrylics for a clearer color expression. Determining whether an artwork is traditional or modern depends on how it has interpreted its subject matter and artistic medium for the ultimate purpose of conveying the spirit of contemporary society. Through his bold experiments, Park had already demonstrated by his 30s that traditional landscape painting can be adapted into a form of contemporary art. 

 

3rd Phase 

 

The third phase (1989–2001) covers the years in his mid- to late 40s that he spent wandering various areas at home and abroad—the Silk Road, New York City, Seoul, and Gyeongju. During this second phase Park revolutionized his perceptions of art and expanded not only the surface of his paintings but also his range of media. In this third period, he clarified his artistic identity in a more objective manner through the expansion of his geographic boundaries. He voluntarily entered the respective centers of East Asian and contemporary painting—China and New York City—and confronted his own artistic identity face-to-face. He realized that Korean painting should not remain within the artistic boundaries of tradition or the territorial boundaries of Korea. He also realized that Korean painting is defined by the inseparable relationship between calligraphy and painting and that the modernization and globalization of Korean painting can be achieved by relying on the power of ink wash painting and the cultural spirit of Gyeongju. 

 

4th Phase

 

No data available.